International television broadcasting as a tool of strategic communication

Al-Jazeera’s role in global communication

Robert Rajczyk, University of Silesia

Abstract

This chapter depicts Al-Jazeera’s position as an instrument of global communication in the context of radio and television international broadcasting. In this process, the State has been involved as well as the global media networks and global media. Nevertheless, Al-Jazeera is also being considered as a significant player on both the regional and global level on the media market, due to its impact on the global news flow diversion called Al-Jazeera effect (giving the voice to voiceless) and being the link between Arabic world and the rest of the globe. Al-Jazeera does not only play as a media actor but also as a tool of strategic communication. In this concept, Qatar’s Public Diplomacy might be conducted throughout the Al-Jazeera news agenda shaping simultaneously Qatar’s national branding. Al-Jazeera stands as an excellent example of country-of-origin-effect. The Al-Jazeera television channel brand is much more popular and widely known than Qatar’s national brand. What’s more, Al-Jazeera has also been a powerful instrument of shaping Arab politics reporting previously taboo issues in this region.

Key words : Al-Jazeera, Public Diplomacy, strategic communication, international TV broadcasting, Middle East

Introduction

Beata Ociepka points out that besides the States and governments, global media and global media corporations are the actors of global communications as well. “The global flow of remittances today has a network structure in which states and their governments act as nodes and which potentially connects (thanks to digital technology) the inhabitants of the globe. Governments do not have complete control over remittances and their flow. In global communication, due to technologies such as satellite broadcasting and online broadcasting, the administrative borders of countries are less important than in classical international communication, the main feature of which is the flow of messages between communities.”[1] According to Ociepka, the State has still been “considered as a significant actor in global communication, e.g. due to its involvement in broadcasting abroad as part of mediatized public diplomacy”.[2]

The aim of this chapter is to set up the position of Al-Jazeera in the global communication as well as to find out how much Al-Jazeera television channels stands as a tool of the strategic communication. Before the analysis would be done, the theoretical approaches for the definitions’ frames shall be presented. The strategic communication is “a rich, multidimensional concept”[3] that  “brings together various communication disciplines (e.g. advertising, business communication, corporate communication, marketing, organizational communication, and public relations)”.[4] Peter O’Malley thinks that “strategic communication requires the deployment of institutional communications to create, strengthen or preserve, among key audiences, opinion favourable to the attainment of institutional or corporate goals”.[5] It means, as for instance Swaran Sandhu claims, that organisational field might be applied to strategic communication.[6] In this way, Kjerstin Thorson defines the strategic communication as “exploring the capacity of organisations, inclusive of corporations, not-for-profit groups and governments, for engaging in purposeful communication” because its strength is the “emphasis on strategy rather than on specific tactics as well as its focus on communications understood holistically”.[7] Entity includes all kind of organizations (e.g. corporations, governments, or non-profits), as well as social movements and known individuals in the public sphere.[8]

Kelly Page Werder, Howard Nothhaft, Dejan Verčič and Ansgar Zerfass consider the strategic communication in the same way as Holtzhausen and Zerfass[9] do, i.e. as the “practice of deliberate and purposive communication that a communication agent enacts in the public sphere on behalf of a communication entity to reach set goals”.[10] Patrick Ene Okon and Joseph Enyia Ekpang II point out that “strategic communication helps, in no little measure, to meet these three aims: to create a public opinion about the organisation where there is none; to reinforce an existing public opinion if such favours the organisation; or to alter the existing public opinion if it hurts the organisation’s reputation”.[11]

According to Holtzhausen  and Zerfass, strategic communication “draws from organization theory, communication theory, leadership and management theory, message effects, narrative theory, crisis communication, public relations theory, socio-cultural theory, political science, organizational communication, communication philosophy, critical theory, branding, reputation management, ethics, and business, among others”.[12]

Agnieszka Szymańska defines strategic communication as “the entirety of assumptions and the scope of activities of a strategic, conceptual, analytical, coordination and executive nature, which, by means of communication tools and the creation of a symbolic value of the country, affect the implementation of its interests in the world by shaping attitudes and public opinion abroad”.[13] Following the latter concept, according to Christopher Paul, the strategic communication stands for “coordinated actions, messages, images, and other forms of signalling or engagement intended to inform, influence, or persuade selected audiences in support of national objectives”.[14] Tomasz Kacała and Justyna Lipińska also point out that strategic communication means “coordinated activities in the information sphere in the form of information operations, public diplomacy, international radio and television broadcasting and public affairs”.[15]

            For that chapter’s purposes, Agnieszka Szymańska’s definition, as well as Tomasz Kacała and Justyna Lipińska’s division, shall be involved. The latter one concerns the United States Department of State typology of strategic communication.

            Based on the differentiation being done in the previous chapter of this article, Al-Jazeera might be included into some kind of activities that had been mentioned by Tomasz Kacała and Justyna Lipińska. As a television channel, Al-Jazeera is either a tool of Public Diplomacy that –  following Eytan Gilboa – might be defined as process of influencing on foreign audiences.[16] For instance, Paul Sharp concludes Public Diplomacy as communication between foreign governments through the influence of foreign state’s society .[17] Al-Jazeera television channel might also be considered as the instrument of international broadcasting, including information operations such as social campaigns sponsored by foreign or domestic entities.

            The above mentioned definitions shall also include the issue of national branding that, according to Boruc and Kłoczko, stands for “a coherent whole (composition) of the image, reputation and authority of the country – the State and the nation, constituting the sum of functional and emotional values that the country provides to the environment (the world), and which are known, valued and desired by stakeholders, i.e. countries, organizations, groups and people who can be influenced and can be influenced by the country to which the brand applies”.[18]

Al-Jazeera as an instrument of global communication

            Al-Jazeera has been broadcasting its programmes for almost 30 years. “When Al Jazeera Channel launched from the Qatari capital, Doha on Friday, November 1, 1996, it was the first independent news channel in the Arab world. Media in the Arab world, till then, was characterised by state-controlled narratives that denied audiences the right to know and the right to be heard. Al Jazeera pioneered a new paradigm for in-depth journalism that was relevant to its audience, giving them a broad and deep perspective on regional and international affairs, putting the human being directly at the centre of the news agenda […] Al Jazeera Media Network is ideally placed on the world stage with its headquarters in the Arab world with over 70 bureaus around the globe, and more than 3000 employees from more than 95 countries. Al Jazeera has extensive reach across the globe and is available in over 150 countries and territories in more than 430 million homes.”[19] Marc Lynch describes the period from 1996 to 2004 as the “Al Jazeera Era”, due to its huge significance in Middle East politics and unmatched popularity among audiences from around the region.[20]

            In 2006, Al-Jazeera English was launched. According to Marwan M. Kraidy, it is difficult to compare Al-Jazeera and Al-Jazeera English. “The former emerged in a nascent pan-Arab media environment in which it pioneered a new brand of journalism: a confrontational editorial line that infuriated most Arab regimes, and, a few years later, the United States and other Western governments. The latter is trying to penetrate a global English-language news market saturated with powerful players.”[21] Abeer Al-Najjar has compared the content of both channels being broadcasted for a few months. “Both channels allocated a sizeable proportion of their news reports to the MENA, although AJE [Al-Jazeera English] broadcast far fewer reports than AJA [Al-Jazeera Arabic] on the region. Marked differences in the level of reporting by the two channels occurred elsewhere. Although AJA reported more news stories than AJE from Somalia, Egypt, and Sudan in that order, each of AJE’s news stories on those countries were allocated a longer time duration […] Clearly, both channels reported more news from the South than from the North. However, while AJA focused mainly on the MENA, AJE also included other regions. AJE broadcast more news stories about Asia and Africa, though very few about Latin America.”[22]

Because of the role of Al-Jazeera, there is a phenomenon called the Al-Jazeera effect. Al-Jazeera English presents a “tremendous opportunity for a new direction in the discourse of global news flows. With its avowed promise of giving a « voice to the voiceless »”.[23] Saba Bewabi thinks that Al-Jazeera has been fulfilling the important gap in global media coverage. “The absence of Arab voices in the main global public sphere has created a discursive gap between the Middle East and the rest of the world. Al-Jazeera English might, thus, be regarded as an attempt to bridge this gap by broadcasting discourses from and about the Arab world”,[24] due to the fact that covering the taboo topics had been previously considered as out of the discussion.[25]

Tal Samuel-Azran and Illan Manor conclude that “scholars argue that the launch of Al-Jazeera has promoted a fairer horizontal news flow as a non-Western perspective entered the global public sphere leading to the Al-Jazeera Effect. In contrast, other scholars argue that Al-Jazeera outlets face biases and boycotts due to their Qatari origin, thus casting a shadow over the Al Jazeera Effect argument”.[26] However, despite the Al-Jazeera effect and its role as a bridge, there are many controversies about Al-Jazeera news coverage. A media bias is set to be under consideration for instance about the accusations of anti-Semitism, anti-Americanism[27] as well as pro-Qatar bias, either by tonality, visibility or agenda biases. Nevertheless, it shall be underlined that Al-Jazeera reporters, due to the television’s image in Arabic countries, have been an alternative source of information about the conflicts in Middle East, in comparison with the Western reporters who had been briefed by the Western coalition. Yao Guo explains this special and unique status of Al-Jazeera status by its role in promoting the “formation of culture circle in Middle East”. Yao Guo continues: “It not only allowed the media of a small developing country to break into the international mainstream for the first time, but also allowed the world to hear the voices of Arabs themselves. The entire Arab world has also quietly changed its discriminatory stereotyped labels. Al Jazeera quickly became the leading television source for the building of an Arab perspective on significant events and its coverage attracted the attention of news organizations elsewhere. Thus, the significance of Al Jazeera lies not only in how the weaker media can triumph over the stronger media, but also in how it can change the unbalanced international news flow and give a country and a region a voice in the international arena. Although located in a disadvantaged geo-cultural sphere, Al Jazeera built its credibility by broadcasting live international news 24/7 to different cultures.”[28]

As far as Al-Jazeera’s vision is concerned, “to be fearless in the pursuit of truth and to be the voice for the voiceless”[29] is the only idea. Al-Jazeera’s mission is “to inform and empower people with accurate, in-depth and compelling content that upholds the value of truth and elevates the human spirit”.[30] When it comes to values, integrity and respect are the pillars of their work: “We are with the people. We tell their stories. We strive to speak truth to power in our journalism as well as amongst ourselves. Our credibility stems from our commitment to professionalism, accuracy and objectivity. We encourage a pioneering spirit and strive for excellence”.[31] There are also two special documents concerning editorial standards[32] and ethics.[33] Both of them shall be considered as a typical manual for unbiased journalism.

For example, Al-Jazeera’s Code of conduct states: “Adhere to the journalistic values of honesty, courage, fairness, balance, independence, credibility and diversity, giving no priority to commercial or political over professional consideration. Endeavour to get to the truth and declare it in our dispatches, programmes and news bulletins unequivocally in a manner which leaves no doubt about its validity and accuracy. Treat our audiences with due respect and address every issue or story with due attention to present a clear, factual and accurate picture while giving full consideration to the feelings of victims of crime, war, persecution and disaster, their relatives and our viewers, and to individual privacies and public decorum. Welcome fair and honest media competition without allowing it to adversely affect our standards of performance and thereby having a « scoop » would not become an end in itself. Present the diverse points of view and opinions without bias and partiality. Recognise diversity in human societies with all their races, cultures and beliefs and their values and intrinsic individualities so as to present unbiased and faithful reflection of them. Acknowledge a mistake when it occurs, promptly correct it and ensure it does not recur. Observe transparency in dealing with the news and its sources while adhering to the internationally established practices concerning the rights of these sources. Distinguish between news material, opinion and analysis to avoid the snares of speculation and propaganda. Stand by colleagues in the profession and give them support when required, particularly in the light of the acts of aggression and harassment to which journalists are subjected at times. Cooperate with Arab and international journalistic unions and associations to defend freedom of the press.”[34]

Conclusion remarks

            Qatar is a small country in the Middle East region. It is a small State but with an enormous amount of financial resources, which had been invested and might be still invested into the national branding processing. “Qatar has the resources and motivation to continue its investments in Al-Jazeera staff and various world bureaus.”[35] Al-Jazeera has been an excellent public relations tool for Qatar, as “Al-Jazeera is the only channel more famous than its country of origin”[36] serving Qatar global voice and improves its global, political status, as well as building its international prestige. “More broadly, by employing journalists from throughout the region’s 22 countries, Al Jazeera became a powerful tool to combat media attacks on Qatar, not through refutation, but rather by redirecting the news agenda.”[37] Al-Jazeera English has been considered as a television that diverts the global news flow from the North to the South. According to Ociepka, the former one dominates nowadays.[38]

There is also a local dimension of the role of Al-Jazeera in the Middle East. “[Al-Jazeera Arabic] has put Qatar on the map and continues to provide the Qatari government with a powerful tool in shaping Arab politics. As a clear demonstration of the network’s geopolitical significance, nearly every country in the region had pressured to shut down Al Jazeera, at times closing embassies, recalling ambassadors, and even shunning corporate interests that conduct business with the network.”[39]

Shawn Powers points out that “the proposed mission of providing a bridge between the Arab world and the West is, importantly, in line with Qatar’s stated foreign policy doctrine, which is based on moving past narrow national interests toward cross-cultural mutual understanding and shared interests.”[40]

            Al-Jazeera, both Arabic and English, as well as the rest of media activities of Al-Jazeera Media Network, is the brilliant example of the phenomenon called country-of-origin effect. It means that the origin of the product shapes the country’s image so the awareness of the brand is much more recognisable than the national brand. It has also been proved by Al-Jazeera Media Network’s promotional activities, which relay on the brand marketing including custom publishing such as open-access publications,[41]  like Al Jazeera in 1000 Academic Studies, Al Jazeera Tells Its Story. In Depth Investigations, as well as Al Jazeera Tells its Story: Diaries from the Field.[42] 

            Eventually, if Al-Jazeera had not been launched, Qatar as a brand would not probably has been widely known. Tal Samuel-Azran claims that “[Qatar] effectively promotes its public diplomacy goals by operating Al-Jazeera as a hybrid network whose independence is limited by the boundaries of Qatar’s crucial interests.”  That is why he suggests to introduce a new type of State-sponsored/private reporting because “Al-Jazeera’s modus operandi does not fall under the classic State-sponsored/private reporting typology, and I suggest it represents a new form of usage of international broadcasting as a public diplomacy tool. Accordingly, I suggest a revised typology of the use of public diplomacy tactics in contemporary international broadcasting. I suggest terming Qatar’s modus operandi as the “hybrid model of international broadcasting.”  In the same manner that hybrid is defined in genetics as any offspring resulting from the mating of two genetically distinct individuals, Al-Jazeera is the offspring of the fundamentally distinct State-sponsored and private models”.[43]

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Internet repository

Al Jazeera Media Network https://network.aljazeera.net/en

Al Jazeera News https://www.aljazeera.com/

American Journalism Review https://ajr.org

University of Pennsylvania’s ScholarlyCommons http://repository.upenn.edu

 Notes : 

[1] Ociepka, B. (2016). Komunikowanie globalne – rewizja pojęcia, Studia Medioznawcze, 4(67), 11–22. https://doi.org/10.33077/uw.24511617.ms.2016.67.429. pp. 11–13.

[2] Ociepka, B. (2016). Op. cit., pp. 11–13.

[3] Hallahan, K., Holtzhausen, D., van Ruler, B., Verčič, D. and Sriramesh, K. (2007). Defining strategic communication, International Journal of Strategic Communication, 1(1). p. 27.

[4] O’Connor, A. and Shumate, M. (2018). A Multidimensional Network Approach to Strategic Communication, International Journal of Strategic Communication, 12(4), 399–416. p. 399.

[5] Shobajo, A. A. (2012). Strategic communications as a tool for mainstreaming gender issues in national development. In African Public Relations Association (APRA), Practice of public relations in Africa. APRA/Nadeem Media Consults.

[6] Sandhu, S., (2009). Strategic Communication: An Institutional Perspective, International Journal of Strategic Communication, 3(2), 72–92. p. 72.

[7] Thorson, K. (2013). Strategic Communication. obo in Communication. https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199756841/obo-9780199756841-0007.xml

[8] Zerfass A., Verčič, D., Nothhaft, H. and Page Werder, K. (2018). Strategic Communication: Defining the Field and its Contribution to Research and Practice, International Journal of Strategic Communication, 12(4), 487–505. p. 487.

[9] Holtzhausen, D. R. and Zerfass, A. (2013). Strategic communication: Pillars and perspectives of an alternative paradigm. In K. Sriramesh, A. Zerfass and J-N. Kim (eds.), Public relations and communication management: Current trends and emerging topics, 283–302. Routledge. p. 74.

[10] Page Werder, K., Nothhaft, H., Verčič, D. and Zerfass, A., (2018). Strategic Communication as an Emerging Interdisciplinary Paradigm, International Journal of Strategic Communication, 12(4), 333–351. p. 334.

[11] Okon Ene, P. and Enyia Ekpang II, J. (2019). Corporate communication versus strategic communication: The perception of Public Relations practitioners in cross river state, Babcock Journal of Mass Communication, 4(1). p. 6.

[12] Holtzhausen, D. and Zerfass, A., (eds.) (2014). The Routledge Handbook of Strategic Communication. Taylor and Francis. https://www.perlego.com/book/1625645/the-routledge-handbook-of-strategic-communication-pdf

[13] Szymańska, A. (2014). Rola mediów w strategicznej komunikacji zewnętrznej państwa – szkic teoretyczny, Zeszyty Prasoznawcze, t. 57, 2(218), 273–292. p. 278.

[14] Paul, C. (2011). Strategic Communication, Praeger, p. 17.

[15] Kacała, T. and Lipińska, J. (2014). Komunikacja strategiczna i Public Affairs. Warszawa, s. 25. In R. Rajczyk (2019). Oblicza współczesnej propagandy. Przypadek chińsko-tajwańskiej wojny informacyjnej. . p. 70.

[16] Gilboa, E. (2016). Public Diplomacy. In G. Mazzoleni (eds), The International Encyclopedia of Political Communication. Blackwell.

[17] Sharp, P. (2001). Making Sense of Citizen Diplomats: The People of Duluth, Minnesota, as International Actors’, International Studies Perspectives, 2(2), 131–150.

[18] Boruc, M. and Kłoczko, M. (2004). Aneks. Marka dla Polski, In. W. Olins, O marce, Instytut Marki Polskiej, . p. 281.

[19] Aljazeera.net (2024). Who we are. p. 20. https://network.aljazeera.net/en/about-us#page-20

[20] Lynch, M. (2006). Voices of the New Arab Public: Iraq, Al-Jazeera, and Middle East Politics Today, Columbia University Press.

[21] Kraidy, M. M. (2008). Al Jazeera and Al Jazeera English: A comparative institutional analysis. In M. Kugelman (ed.), Kuala Lumpur calling: Al-Jazeera English in Asia, 23–30. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. p. 23. http://repository.upenn.edu/asc_papers/274

[22] Al-Najjar, A. (2009). How Arab is Al-Jazeera English? Comparative Study of Al-Jazeera Arabic and Al-Jazeera English News Channels, Global Media Journal, (8)14. p. 8.

[23] El-Nawawy, M. and Powers, S. (eds.) (2008). Mediating Conflict. Al-Jazeera English and the Possibility of a Conciliatory Media, Figueroa Press. pp. 7–8.

[24] Bebawi, S. (2016). Introduction: Al Jazeera English and Media Power. In I. B. Tauris (ed.), Media Power and Global Television News: The Role of Al Jazeera English, 1–14. Bloomsbury. p. 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780755695072.0007

[25] Bebawi, S. (2016). Op. Cit., p. 1.

[26] Samuel-Azran, T. and Manor, I. (2022). Empirical support for the Al-Jazeera Effect notion: Al-Jazeera’s Twitter following, International Communication Gazette, 85(5). https://doi.org/10.1177/17480485221142466

[27] Ricchiardi, S. (2021). The Al Jazeera Effect, American Journalism Review, March-April. https://ajr.org/Article.asp?id=5077&id=5077

[28] Yao, G. (2022). Understanding Transcultural Communication and Middle East Politics Through Al Jazeera Practices, Journal of Transcultural Communication, 2(2), 202–217. p. 13. https://doi.org/10.1515/jtc-2022-0018

[29] Aljazeera.net (2024). Who we are. p. 36. https://network.aljazeera.net/en/about-us#page-36

[30] Aljazeera.net (2024). Who we are. p. 37. https://network.aljazeera.net/en/about-us#page-37

[31] Aljazeera.net (2024). Who we are. p. 38. https://network.aljazeera.net/en/about-us#page-38

[32] Aljazeera.net (2024). Editorial Standards. https://network.aljazeera.net/en/our-values/editorial-standards

[33] Aljazeera.net (2024). Code of Ethics. https://network.aljazeera.net/en/our-values/standards

[34] Aljazeera.net (2024). Code of Ethics. p. 16. https://network.aljazeera.net/en/our-values/standards#page-16

[35] Samuel-Azran, T. (2013). Al-Jazeera, Qatar, and New Tactics in State-Sponsored Media Diplomacy, American Behavioral Scientist, 57(9), 1293–1311. p. 1308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213487736

[36] Samuel-Azran, T. (2010). Al-Jazeera and US war coverage. Peter Lang. p. 31.

[37] Powers, S. (2012). The Origins of Al Jazeera English. In P. Seib (eds.), Al Jazeera English. The Palgrave Macmillan Series in International Political Communication. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 10. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137015747_2

[38] Ociepka, B. (2016). Op. Cit., p. 18.

[39] Bebawi, S. (2016). Op. Cit., p. 10.

[40] Powers, S. (2012). Op. Cit., p. 15.

[41] See https://network.aljazeera.net/en/more#block-views-block-press-block-2

[42] Abdelmoula, E. (ed.) (2022). Al Jazeera in 1000 Academic Studies. PhDs, Masters, Books and Research papers, Aljazeera Media Network.  https://online.flippingbook.com/view/298642303/ ; Souag, M., Eddine El Zein, S., Abdelmoula, E. and Mohamed Nacik L. (eds.) (2022). Al Jazeera Tells Its Story. In-Depth Investigations, Aljazeera Media Network. https://online.flippingbook.com/view/332302273/ ; Sidi Baba, M. and Mohamed Nacik, L. (eds.) (2021). Al Jazeera Tells its Story: Diaries from the Field, Aljazeera Media Network. https://online.flippingbook.com/view/596170065/

[43] Samuel-Azran, T. (2013). Op. Cit., p. 1307.